99+ Music Symbols and Their Meanings Explained

Staff (Stave)

A staff (or stave) is a set of five horizontal lines and four spaces used to notate musical pitches and symbols. The position of a note on the staff indicates its pitch and depends on the clef placed at the beginning— for example, the treble clef assigns the second line to the note G. When notes are too high or low to fit within the five lines, ledger lines are added to extend the range. In instruments like the piano, a grand staff is used, which combines two staves: one for the right hand (treble clef) and one for the left hand (bass clef).

Leger Lines

Ledger lines (also spelled leger lines, though less commonly) are short horizontal lines added above or below the staff to notate pitches that fall outside its standard five-line range. Each ledger line acts as an extension of the staff, allowing composers and performers to write and read higher or lower notes accurately.

For example, in treble clef, middle C (C4) is written on a single ledger line below the staff, while notes like A5 or C6 may require ledger lines above. These lines follow the same line-space alternation as the main staff.

The spelling "ledger" is the modern and more widely accepted form, especially in American and British English. "Leger" is an older variant, occasionally seen in older music texts.

>>More details about Leger Lines

Bar line

A bar line (or barline) is a vertical line drawn through the staff that divides music into equal segments called measures (or bars). These divisions help organize rhythm and indicate timing based on the time signature. Each measure contains a specific number of beats, making it easier for musicians to read and perform music accurately.

There are different types of bar lines: the single bar line simply separates measures; the double bar line often marks a section change; the final bar line (a thick line followed by a thin one) indicates the end of a piece; and repeat bar lines (dots before or after the line) instruct musicians to repeat a section.

>>More details about bar line in music

Double bar line

A double bar line consists of two vertical lines drawn close together across the staff. It is used to indicate a section break, a change in key or time signature, or sometimes to mark a significant shift in the music’s character or structure. Unlike a final bar line (which has one thick and one thin line), a double bar line uses two thin lines and does not indicate the end of a piece.

You’ll often see double bar lines at the start of a new section, such as the transition from a verse to a chorus, or before a change in tempo or style.

>>More details about double bar line

Bold double bar line

A bold double bar line, also known as a final bar line, is made up of two vertical lines where the second line is thicker than the first. It marks the end of a piece or movement in sheet music. This clear visual cue helps performers recognize that the music concludes at that point.

It is different from a regular double bar line, which uses two thin lines and signals section changes rather than a full ending.

Dotted bar line

A dotted bar line is a vertical line made of small dots instead of a solid line, and it divides the staff in a less formal way than a regular bar line. It’s typically used to visually group beats within a measure—especially in complex time signatures (like 7/8 or 5/4)—to help performers understand rhythmic subdivisions more easily.

Unlike regular bar lines, dotted bar lines do not affect phrasing or measure count; they're purely for readability and guidance.

Brace

A brace is a curved bracket that connects two or more staves on the left side of a musical system. It’s most commonly used in keyboard music—like piano, organ, or harp—where it joins the treble and bass staves to indicate that both are played by a single performer, usually with two hands.

The brace visually groups these staves into a single instrument part. It’s different from a bracket, which is a straight line used to group staves for different instruments (like in an orchestra).

Bracket

A bracket is a straight vertical line placed on the left side of two or more staves to indicate that they belong to a group of instruments or voices that perform together. It's commonly used in orchestral, choral, or ensemble scores to visually organize parts—for example, bracketing all string instruments or vocal sections (soprano, alto, tenor, bass).

Unlike a brace, which curves and joins staves of a single instrument (like piano), a bracket groups separate instruments or parts. Multiple brackets can appear in one system to show different families of instruments.

G clef (Treble clef)

The G clef, more commonly known as the treble clef, is a symbol placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate that the second line from the bottom represents the note G4 (the G above middle C). It spirals around that line, which is why it’s called the G clef.

The treble clef is used for higher-pitched instruments and voices, such as the violin, flute, trumpet, right hand of the piano, and soprano or alto vocal parts. Notes on the treble clef staff ascend from E (bottom line) to F (top line), with the sequence: E–G–B–D–F on the lines and F–A–C–E in the spaces.

>>More details about g clef symbol​ or other music clef symbols

C clef (Alto and Tenor clefs)

The C clef is a movable clef that designates middle C (C4) on the staff by centering its symbol around the line where that pitch should appear. Unlike the fixed G clef or F clef, the C clef can be positioned on different lines, most commonly as:

• Alto clef: The C clef is centered on the third line of the staff, meaning that line represents middle C. This clef is primarily used by the viola.
• Tenor clef: The C clef is placed on the fourth line, making that line middle C. It's used by instruments like the bassoon, tenor trombone, and cello when they play in higher ranges.

The C clef helps avoid excessive ledger lines by shifting the staff to better fit an instrument’s natural range.

F clef (Bass clef)

The F clef, commonly known as the bass clef, is a symbol placed on the staff to indicate that the fourth line from the bottom represents the note F3 (the F below middle C). The two dots of the clef surround this fourth line, marking it clearly.

The bass clef is used for lower-pitched instruments and voices, such as the cello, double bass, bassoon, trombone, tuba, left hand of the piano, and bass or baritone voice parts. Notes on the bass staff progress from G (bottom line) to A (top line), with the sequence: G–B–D–F–A on the lines and A–C–E–G in the spaces.

>>More details about bass clef symbol

Octave clef

The octave clef is a variation of the G (treble) clef or F (bass) clef that includes a small number—8 or 15—placed above or below the clef symbol. It indicates that all notes on the staff should be played or sung an octave (8va) or two octaves (15ma) higher or lower than written.

𝄞8 above the treble clef: play/sing one octave higher. Common in piccolo or sopranino recorder.

𝄞8 below the treble clef: play/sing one octave lower. Used for tenor voice, guitar, or bass flute.

𝄢8 above the bass clef: rare, but would mean play one octave higher.

𝄢8 below the bass clef: means play one octave lower—used occasionally for very low instruments.

This clef helps avoid excessive ledger lines, especially for instruments or voices that consistently sound an octave away from the notated pitch.

Neutral clef

The neutral clef, also called the percussion clef, is a symbol used in sheet music for non-pitched percussion instruments—those that do not produce specific pitches, like drums, cymbals, or tambourines.

Unlike G, F, or C clefs, the neutral clef doesn’t assign specific note names to lines or spaces. Instead, each line or space typically corresponds to a different percussion instrument or playing technique, as defined in the score's legend. It usually appears as two vertical rectangles or a single vertical line, depending on the notation style.

This clef is common in drum set, marching percussion, and orchestral percussion parts.

Tablature

Tablature (often abbreviated as TAB) is a form of musical notation that shows where to place fingers on an instrument—most commonly the guitar, bass, or lute—rather than indicating specific pitches like standard notation.

In guitar tablature, the lines represent the strings (with the lowest line as the lowest-pitched string), and the numbers represent frets to press. For example, a “3” on the top line means to press the 3rd fret of the high E string. Tablature is especially popular in modern and popular music because it's easy to read for those who don't read traditional notation.

Unlike standard notation, tablature typically does not show rhythm unless combined with rhythmic stems or used alongside traditional staff notation.

Notes

Rests

>>More details about:

• music rest symbols
• half rest
• quarter rest symbol
• eighth rest symbol

Beamed notes

Beamed notes are groups of two or more shorter note values—typically eighth notes (quavers) or smaller—that are connected by a horizontal beam instead of individual flags. This beaming visually shows that the notes belong together rhythmically, making music easier to read and interpret.

For example, two eighth notes can be written with individual flags or joined with one beam; four sixteenth notes will have two beams connecting them. Beaming follows grouping rules based on the time signature and helps performers quickly see beat divisions within each measure.

Dotted note

A dotted note is a note with a small dot placed to its right, which increases the note's duration by half of its original value. For example, a dotted half note (which normally equals 2 beats) lasts 3 beats—2 beats plus half of 2 (which is 1). This rule applies to all note values.

Multiple dots can be used:

• A double-dotted note adds three-quarters of the original value (e.g., a double-dotted half note = 2 + 1 + 0.5 = 3.5 beats).
• A triple-dotted note adds seven-eighths of the original value.

Dotted notes are common in many rhythmic patterns, especially in styles like classical, swing, and pop.

Ghost note

A ghost note is a note that’s rhythmically played but tonally subtle or almost inaudible, often used for groove, feel, or articulation rather than melody. It’s especially common in drumming, bass lines, and funk guitar.

In notation, ghost notes are typically written in parentheses—like ( )—or as x-shaped note heads for drums. On instruments like bass or guitar, they’re produced by lightly muting the string while striking it, creating a percussive sound without a clear pitch. In drumming, ghost notes are played softly, often on the snare, to add dynamics and rhythmic texture.

Multi-measure rest

A multi-measure rest (or multiple bar rest) is a notation symbol that indicates a performer should remain silent for two or more full measures. Instead of writing individual whole rests for each measure, a single horizontal line (often thick) is used with a number above it showing how many measures to rest.

This helps keep sheet music clean and readable, especially in ensemble or orchestral settings where certain instruments may be silent for extended periods. The multi-measure rest ends when the performer must re-enter, often marked by a cue or rehearsal mark.

Breath mark

A breath mark is a small symbol—usually a comma (,)—placed above the staff to indicate where a performer should take a breath or make a slight pause. It doesn’t add time to the measure but suggests a natural break in phrasing, much like punctuation in a sentence.

Breath marks are commonly used in vocal, wind, and string music, as well as in phrasing for keyboard or percussion instruments to shape musical expression. The pause is typically very short and does not disrupt the underlying tempo.

Caesura

A caesura is a musical symbol indicating a brief, complete pause in the music, marked by two diagonal lines ∥ (often called “railroad tracks”). During a caesura, all performers stop playing or singing momentarily, and the length of the pause is left to the discretion of the conductor or performer.

Unlike a breath mark, which is subtle and often unnoticed, a caesura creates a clear break in the flow, often for dramatic or expressive effect. It is commonly used in orchestral, choral, and solo music to emphasize a shift or to build anticipation.

Flat

A flat (♭) is a musical symbol that lowers a note by one semitone (half step). For example, a B becomes B♭, sounding a half step lower than natural B. Flats are used to adjust pitch and are common in both key signatures and individual accidentals.

There are also:

• Double flats (𝄫), which lower a note by two semitones.
• Key signatures with flats, which apply the flat to specific notes throughout a piece or section.

Flats are essential for creating certain scales, modes, and harmonic colors in music.

>>More details about flat symbol or other accidental music symbols

Sharp

A sharp (♯) is a musical symbol that raises a note by one semitone (half step). For example, F becomes F♯, sounding a half step higher than natural F. Sharps appear as accidentals next to individual notes or in key signatures, where they apply to specific notes throughout a piece.

There are also:

• Double sharps (𝄪), which raise a note by two semitones.
• Enharmonic equivalents, like G♯ and A♭, which sound the same but are written differently depending on context.

Sharps are essential in defining scales, harmonies, and modulations in music.

>>More details about sharp symbol​

Natural

A natural (♮) is a musical symbol that cancels a previous sharp (♯) or flat (♭), returning the note to its natural, unaltered pitch. It’s used either as an accidental (affecting just that measure) or to override a sharp or flat in the key signature.

For example, if a note is written as F♯ in the key signature but a natural sign is placed before it, it becomes F♮ for that measure. Naturals are essential for key changes, chromatic movement, or resolving altered notes back to their original form.

>>More details about natural music symbol

Double flat

A double flat (𝄫) is a symbol that lowers a note by two semitones (a whole step). For example, a B𝄫 sounds the same as an A natural, even though it's written differently depending on the harmonic context.

Double flats are often used in keys or chords where the notation needs to maintain correct theoretical spelling—like in a B♭ minor scale, which includes A♭ and G♭, so an A♭ minor chord might include B𝄫 instead of A. They’re most commonly seen in classical, jazz, and chromatic music.

>>More details about double flat music

Double sharp

A double sharp (𝄪) is a musical symbol that raises a note by two semitones (a whole step). For example, F𝄪 sounds the same as G natural, but is written as F double sharp to preserve the correct theoretical spelling in certain keys or chords.

Double sharps often appear in complex key signatures, modulations, or chromatic harmonies, especially in classical and jazz music. They are crucial when maintaining proper scale structure or voice leading, even if the resulting pitch sounds the same as a more simply named note.

>>More details about double sharp symbol

Flat key signatures

Flat key signatures use one or more flat symbols (♭) placed at the beginning of the staff to indicate which notes should be consistently lowered by a semitone throughout a piece. The flats are added in a specific order: B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭.

Each flat key signature corresponds to a major and its relative minor key:

• 1 flat (B♭) → F major / D minor
• 2 flats (B♭, E♭) → B♭ major / G minor
• 3 flats → E♭ major / C minor
• 4 flats → A♭ major / F minor
• 5 flats → D♭ major / B♭ minor
• 6 flats → G♭ major / E♭ minor
• 7 flats → C♭ major / A♭ minor

These key signatures help define the tonal center of a piece and reduce the need for accidentals throughout the music.

Sharp key signatures

Sharp key signatures use one or more sharp symbols (♯) placed at the beginning of the staff to indicate which notes are consistently raised by a semitone throughout a piece. Sharps appear in a fixed order: F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯, B♯.

Each sharp key signature corresponds to a major and its relative minor key:

• 1 sharp (F♯) → G major / E minor
• 2 sharps → D major / B minor
• 3 sharps → A major / F♯ minor
• 4 sharps → E major / C♯ minor
• 5 sharps → B major / G♯ minor
• 6 sharps → F♯ major / D♯ minor
• 7 sharps → C♯ major / A♯ minor

Sharp key signatures define the tonality and reduce the use of accidentals by setting a consistent pitch framework.

Demiflat / Half flat

A demiflat or half flat (𝄳) is a rare accidental that lowers a note by a quarter tone, halfway between a natural and a flat. It’s mainly used in microtonal music, where composers work with pitches that fall between the standard notes of Western tuning.

For example, an E half flat is slightly lower than E natural but higher than E♭. The demiflat symbol looks like a flat sign with a diagonal slash or a special hooked design, depending on the notation system.

This accidental is common in contemporary classical, experimental, or non-Western music systems that divide the octave into more than 12 parts.

Flat-and-a-half (sesquiflat)

The flat-and-a-half, also called a sesquiflat, is a rare accidental that lowers a note by three quarter-tones—equivalent to 1.5 semitones. It falls between a double flat (𝄫) and a demiflat (𝄳) in pitch.

The symbol for a sesquiflat varies by notation system, but it often combines elements of a flat and demiflat, or appears as a stylized composite accidental. It’s mainly used in microtonal, experimental, or non-Western music traditions where pitches fall outside the 12-tone equal temperament system.

Demisharp / Half sharp

A demisharp or half sharp (𝄲) is an uncommon accidental that raises a note by a quarter tone, placing it halfway between a natural and a sharp. It’s primarily used in microtonal music, where finer pitch divisions than the standard semitone are needed.

For example, a C half sharp sounds slightly higher than C natural but not as high as C♯. The demisharp symbol often looks like a slashed sharp sign or a uniquely modified version, depending on the notation system used.

It is most often found in contemporary classical, electroacoustic, or non-Western-influenced music.

Sharp-and-a-half (sesquisharp)

The sharp-and-a-half, also known as a sesquisharp, is a rare accidental that raises a note by three quarter-tones (1.5 semitones). It lies between a sharp (♯) and a double sharp (𝄪) in pitch and is used primarily in microtonal music that divides the octave into more than 12 parts.

There is no universally standardized symbol for the sesquisharp, but it is typically shown as a combination or modification of sharp and demisharp symbols, depending on the notation system used. It allows composers to explore finely tuned harmonic and melodic nuances outside conventional Western tuning.

Harmonic flat

A harmonic flat is a non-standard or specialized accidental used in microtonal or just intonation music to indicate a pitch that is slightly lower than a regular flat, typically by a small, precise interval based on natural harmonic ratios (such as 36 or 53 equal divisions of the octave).

Rather than representing a fixed semitone adjustment like a regular flat (♭), a harmonic flat might lower a note by a specific microtonal interval, often less than a quarter tone. The exact meaning depends on the context or tuning system being used—such as 31-EDO, 53-EDO, or just intonation.

Its symbol is not universally standardized and may appear as a stylized or combined flat, sometimes with additional markings or arrows to denote microtonal adjustment.

Simple time signatures

Simple time signatures are time signatures in which each beat is divisible by two, meaning the beat is made up of simple (undotted) note values like quarter notes or eighth notes. The most common simple time signatures include:

• 2/4 – two quarter-note beats per measure
• 3/4 – three quarter-note beats per measure
• 4/4 – four quarter-note beats per measure (also called "common time")
• 2/2 – two half-note beats per measure (also called "cut time")

In simple time, the top number tells you how many beats are in each measure, and the bottom number tells you what kind of note gets one beat. These time signatures are widely used in Western music due to their straightforward, symmetrical rhythmic structure.

Compound time signatures

Compound time signatures are time signatures where each beat is divisible by three, meaning the beat is made up of dotted note values (e.g., dotted quarter notes). Instead of counting in single notes, you count in groups of three smaller notes per beat.

Common compound time signatures include:

• 6/8 – two beats per measure, each a dotted quarter note
• 9/8 – three beats per measure
• 12/8 – four beats per measure

In these signatures, the top number indicates the number of subdivisions, not beats, and the bottom number tells which note value gets one subdivision. To find the number of beats, divide the top number by 3. Compound time allows for flowing, lilting rhythms often heard in waltzes, ballads, or folk dances.

Complex time signatures

Complex or irregular time signatures are time signatures in which beats are grouped unevenly, meaning the measure cannot be divided into equal groups of 2 or 3 beats. These time signatures often combine simple and compound groupings, creating unique rhythmic feels.

Common examples include:

• 5/8 – often grouped as 2+3 or 3+2
• 7/8 – typically grouped as 2+2+3, 3+2+2, or 2+3+2
• 11/8, 13/8, etc. – used in advanced or ethnic music traditions (e.g., Balkan or progressive rock)

These meters create asymmetrical rhythms that feel off-balance or shifting. They are frequently used in modern classical, jazz, film scores, and progressive music to add rhythmic complexity and drive.

Common time

Common time is a widely used time signature represented by the symbol 𝄴, which is equivalent to 4/4. It indicates that there are four quarter-note beats per measure, with the quarter note receiving one beat.

This time signature is called "common" because it's the most frequently used meter in Western music, appearing in everything from classical pieces to pop, rock, and jazz. Its steady, symmetrical feel makes it easy to follow and versatile across styles and tempos.

Alla breve / Cut time

Alla breve, also known as cut time, is a time signature represented by the symbol 𝄵 (a "C" with a vertical line) and is equivalent to 2/2. This means there are two half-note beats per measure, with the half note receiving one beat.

Cut time creates a faster, more flowing feel than 4/4, even if the tempo remains the same, because the beat is counted in half notes instead of quarter notes. It’s often used in marches, Baroque music, fast orchestral passages, and modern scores where a lighter or brisker beat emphasis is desired.

Metronome mark

A metronome mark is a tempo indication that shows the exact speed of the beat using a numerical value, typically written as something like ♪ = 120, meaning 120 beats per minute (BPM). The note symbol (usually a quarter note ♪ or other value) tells you which note gets the beat.

Metronome marks are placed at the beginning of a piece or section and may be adjusted throughout the music to indicate tempo changes. They offer more precision than traditional Italian tempo terms (like Allegro or Andante), making them essential in modern scores, digital music, and recording settings.

Tie

A tie is a curved line connecting two notes of the same pitch, indicating that they should be played as a single sustained note with a duration equal to the sum of both notes. The second note is not rearticulated—the sound simply continues through it.

Ties are often used to:

• Extend a note across a bar line
• Combine notes to match rhythmic groupings
• Notate durations that can't be represented with a single note value (e.g., tying a half note and a quarter note to make 3 beats)

They differ from slurs, which also use curved lines but connect notes of different pitches to be played smoothly.

Slur

A slur is a curved line placed over or under two or more notes of different pitches, indicating that they should be played smoothly and connected—a technique called legato. Unlike a tie, which combines durations of the same pitch, a slur affects articulation, not length.

In vocal music, a slur may also indicate that multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. In instrumental music, slurs guide phrasing and expression, helping performers shape the line with fluid motion and minimal separation between notes.

>>More details about legato symbol on a score​

Glissando / Portamento

A glissando is a musical gesture where the performer slides continuously from one pitch to another, sounding all the intermediate notes in between. It is usually notated with a straight or wavy line connecting two notes, often labeled gliss.. It can be rapid and smooth (as on a trombone or harp) or a stepped slide across discrete notes (as on a piano).

Portamento, while similar, refers to a more subtle, expressive slide between two notes—often used in vocal, string, and wind music. Unlike the often dramatic glissando, portamento tends to be gentler and more stylistic, blending pitches rather than clearly outlining every one.

In short:

• Glissando = clear, sweeping slide (all intermediate notes may be heard)
• Portamento = expressive, smooth slide (fewer notes, more subtle)

Tuplet

A tuplet is a rhythmic grouping that divides a beat into a different number of equal parts than is normally allowed by the time signature. The most common example is a triplet, which divides one beat (or note value) into three equal parts instead of two. Tuplets are indicated with a number (e.g., 3, 5, 7) above or below a bracket that spans the group.

Examples:

• Triplet (3): three notes in the time of two
• Quintuplet (5): five notes in the time of four (or another base)
• Septuplet (7): seven notes in the time of four, six, or another value

Tuplets allow composers to create irregular subdivisions for expressive, complex, or syncopated rhythms, and are common in classical, jazz, and modern music.

Chord

A chord is a group of three or more notes played simultaneously, creating a harmonic sound. Most basic chords are built by stacking thirds, typically forming structures like:

• Major chord: root + major third + perfect fifth (e.g., C–E–G)
• Minor chord: root + minor third + perfect fifth (e.g., A–C–E)
• Diminished or augmented chords, which alter the fifth or third

Chords are the foundation of harmony in Western music and are often used to support melodies, define key centers, and shape musical progressions. They can also appear in broken form (arpeggios) rather than being played all at once.

Arpeggiated chord

An arpeggiated chord is a chord whose notes are played in quick succession rather than all at once, usually from the lowest to the highest note. This broken chord style creates a flowing, harp-like sound and is notated with a vertical wavy line (𝆏) placed in front of the chord.

Arpeggiation can be:

• Upward (from bottom to top), which is standard
• Downward, indicated by a downward-pointing arrow on the wavy line

Arpeggiated chords are common in keyboard, guitar, harp, and orchestral music, adding expressive and rhythmic nuance while still preserving the harmony of the full chord.

Pianississimo

Pianississimo is a dynamic marking in music, notated as ppp, meaning very, very soft. It instructs the performer to play with extreme quietness, even softer than pianissimo (pp). While it's less common than other dynamics, it appears in delicate or atmospheric passages, especially in classical, romantic, and contemporary music.

This marking helps create contrast and emotional subtlety, often requiring careful control and sometimes even a change in technique to achieve the hushed sound.

Pianissimo

Pianissimo, notated as pp, is a dynamic marking that means very soft. It directs the performer to play with a gentle, quiet touch—softer than piano (p) but louder than pianississimo (ppp).

Used frequently in classical and romantic music, pianissimo helps create intimate, delicate, or mysterious atmospheres. It often appears in slow, expressive sections or to contrast louder dynamics in a piece.

Piano

Piano, notated as p, is a dynamic marking that means soft. It instructs musicians to play with a gentle volume, creating a calm or intimate atmosphere. It's louder than pianissimo (pp) but softer than mezzo-piano (mp).

Piano is one of the most commonly used dynamics in music and helps shape contrast, emotion, and expression within a piece.

Mezzo piano

Mezzo piano, notated as mp, means moderately soft. It’s slightly louder than piano (p) but quieter than mezzo forte (mf). This dynamic marking suggests a gentle but clearly audible volume, often used in lyrical or supporting passages.

It provides subtle dynamic contrast, helping shape musical phrases without dramatic shifts in intensity.

Mezzo forte

Mezzo forte, notated as mf, means moderately loud. It sits between mezzo piano (mp) and forte (f) on the dynamic scale and suggests a confident but controlled volume—strong enough to project, but not overpowering.

This dynamic is commonly used for melodic lines, ensembles, or transitional passages, where balance and clarity are important.

>>More details about mezzo forte music

Forte

Forte, notated as f, means loud. It directs the performer to play with full strength and strong presence, making the sound stand out clearly and powerfully. Forte is louder than mezzo forte (mf) but softer than fortissimo (ff).

It’s commonly used in climactic, dramatic, or energetic sections of music across all genres.

Fortissimo

Fortissimo, notated as ff, means very loud. It signals the performer to play with maximum intensity and power, louder than forte (f) but softer than fortississimo (fff).

Fortissimo is often used in dramatic climaxes, orchestral tuttis, or moments of great emotional force, creating a strong impact on the listener.

Fortississimo

Fortississimo, notated as fff, means extremely loud. It instructs the performer to play with the greatest possible volume, even more forceful than fortissimo (ff).

This dynamic is used sparingly for intense climaxes, dramatic finales, or moments of maximum emotional or sonic impact, especially in orchestral, choral, and modern music.

Sforzando / Sforzato

Sforzando (abbreviated sfz) or sforzato (sf) means a sudden, strong accent on a note or chord. It signals the performer to emphasize the marked note with an immediate, forceful attack. The effect is brief and intense, often used for dramatic or expressive emphasis within a phrase.

The term subito sforzando (e.g., sub. sfz) adds the idea of “suddenly”, indicating an abrupt change in dynamic character, often from a much softer context.

These markings are commonly found in orchestral, romantic, and modern music to create sharp contrast or highlight important moments.

Fortepiano

Fortepiano, notated as fp, is a dynamic marking that means a note or chord should be played loudly (forte), then immediately softly (piano). It creates a sudden contrast in dynamics within a single sound, adding dramatic expression.

This effect is often used in classical and romantic music to surprise the listener or highlight important moments in a phrase. The quick drop in volume requires precise control and attention to articulation.

Crescendo

Crescendo, often abbreviated as cresc. or shown with a hairpin (<), means to gradually increase the volume of the music. It builds intensity over a span of notes or measures, leading to a louder dynamic level.

Crescendos can be subtle or dramatic, depending on context and the final target dynamic (e.g., rising from piano to forte). They are widely used in orchestral, choral, and solo music to shape phrasing, heighten emotion, or lead into climactic moments.

>>More details about crescendo symbol

Diminuendo / Decrescendo

Diminuendo (or decrescendo) means to gradually decrease the volume of the music. It is often abbreviated as dim. or decresc., and also represented by a hairpin symbol ( > ).

This dynamic marking guides the performer to soften the sound progressively, usually over a series of notes or measures. It’s used to create emotional fading, relax tension, or conclude phrases gently.

Though both terms are interchangeable, diminuendo is more commonly used in modern notation.

Niente

Niente, meaning “nothing” in Italian, is a dynamic marking that indicates the music should fade to complete silence. It is often shown as a small circle (𝆐) or written as niente or al niente, typically at the end of a diminuendo.

Used for expressive fading, it creates the effect of the sound vanishing into silence, rather than stopping abruptly. Niente is common in orchestral, film, and ambient music for dramatic or atmospheric endings.

Staccato

Staccato is an articulation mark indicating that notes should be played short and detached. It’s shown as a small dot above or below a notehead, depending on the stem direction.

Staccato doesn’t affect pitch or rhythm but shortens the note’s duration, creating a crisp, separated sound. It’s used across many styles—from classical to jazz and pop—to add lightness, clarity, or rhythmic precision.

Staccatissimo or Spiccato

Staccatissimo, notated with a wedge-shaped mark ( 𝆏 ) above or below a note, indicates a very short, sharply detached articulation—more extreme than staccato. It produces a light, almost percussive effect.

In string playing, spiccato refers to a bounced bow stroke, where the bow lightly leaves the string between each note. While often confused with staccatissimo, spiccato is a specific bowing technique, whereas staccatissimo is a general articulation used across instruments.

Both create short, separated sounds, but spiccato involves physical bow control, especially in fast, light passages.

Tenuto

Tenuto, notated with a short horizontal line (–) above or below a note, means to hold the note for its full value, sometimes with slight emphasis. It suggests a smooth, sustained articulation, contrasting with detached styles like staccato.

Tenuto can also imply a bit of weight or gentle stress, helping the note stand out slightly within a phrase. It's commonly used in legato playing, expressive lines, and when shaping melodic contours with care.

Fermata or Pause

A fermata, also called a pause, is a symbol (𝄐) placed over or under a note or rest to indicate it should be held longer than its written value. The exact duration is left to the performer or conductor’s discretion, often depending on the musical context.

Fermatas are commonly used at cadences, ends of phrases, or final notes, creating a sense of suspension, emphasis, or closure. In ensemble settings, the conductor usually signals when to continue.

>>More details about fermata music symbol or other music articulation symbols

Accent

An accent is a symbol placed above or below a note (typically >) to indicate it should be played with extra emphasis or force. It doesn’t change the note’s length, only its attack and intensity, making it stand out from surrounding notes.

Accents add rhythmic drive, expression, and are used across all genres. Variants include:

• Standard accent ( > ) – strong emphasis
• Marcato ( ^ ) – very strong, marked
• Tenuto with accent (– with >) – full value with slight emphasis

>>More details about accent symbol music

Marcato

Marcato, notated with an upward-pointing wedge ( ^ ) above or below a note, means the note should be played markedly louder and more forcefully than surrounding notes. It combines aspects of both accent and tenuto, giving the note emphasis and full value with a sharp, bold attack.

Often used in dramatic, rhythmic, or declamatory passages, marcato helps a note or phrase stand out clearly and powerfully within a musical line.

Tremolo

Tremolo is a musical effect where a single note or two alternating notes are repeated rapidly and continuously, creating a shimmering or trembling sound. It's notated with short diagonal strokes across the stem or between notes:

• For a single note, the strokes indicate quick repetition of that note.
• For two notes, the strokes between them show rapid alternation, like a fast trill.

Tremolo is widely used in string, percussion, and wind instruments to add intensity, suspense, or sustained energy.

Trill

A trill is an ornament that involves the rapid alternation between two adjacent notes, typically a main note and the note above it. It's notated with the symbol “tr” placed above the note, sometimes followed by a wavy line (𝓌).

Trills can vary in speed and number of alternations, depending on the tempo, style, and era of the music. In Baroque and Classical music, trills often start on the upper note, while in Romantic and later music, they may begin on the written note.

Used in both melodic and expressive contexts, trills add ornamentation, tension, and virtuosity.

>>More details about trill symbol​

Upper mordent

An upper mordent, often simply called a mordent, is an ornament that involves a rapid alternation between a note, the note above it, and back to the original note. It’s notated with a short squiggle (𝆭) above the note.

For example, a mordent on D would be played as D–E–D quickly, almost like a mini-trill. It's typically executed on the beat and very quickly, adding expression and flair to a melody.

Lower mordent (inverted)

A lower mordent, also called an inverted mordent, is a musical ornament where the performer quickly plays the main note, the note below it, and returns to the main note. It’s notated with a squiggle and a vertical line through it (𝆮) placed above the note.

For instance, a lower mordent on E would be played as E–D–E, executed rapidly and usually starting on the beat. It adds expressive tension or ornamental color to melodic lines, especially in Baroque and Classical music.

Gruppetto or Turn

A gruppetto, also known as a turn, is an ornament that involves a four-note figure: the note above the main note, the main note itself, the note below, and a return to the main note. It’s notated with a sideways S-shaped symbol (𝆱) placed above the affected note.

For example, a turn on D would be played as: E–D–C♯–D (assuming no accidentals). The execution can be before, on, or after the beat, depending on the musical context and style. It’s common in Classical and Baroque music to add elegance and decoration to a melody.

Appoggiatura

An appoggiatura is a type of ornament that consists of a grace note played before a main note, typically taking part of its time value and creating a moment of expressive tension. It's usually written as a small note without a slash before the main note.

The appoggiatura often leans into the main note, resolving downward or upward, and is most effective on strong beats. It’s commonly used in Romantic and Classical music to add emotion and melodic expressiveness.

Acciaccatura

An acciaccatura is a type of grace note played very quickly before the main note, often described as a crushed note. It’s written as a small note with a slash through the stem, appearing just before the principal note.

Unlike the appoggiatura, the acciaccatura doesn’t take time from the main note in strict tempo—it’s played almost simultaneously, creating a brief, percussive effect. It’s common in Classical, Romantic, and jazz styles, and often adds a sharp, ornamental flair.

Ottava alta

Ottava alta, abbreviated as 8va, is an octave sign indicating that the music should be played one octave higher than written. It appears above the staff, often with a dashed line extending over the affected notes.

This marking helps avoid excessive ledger lines and keeps notation clean, especially for high-pitched passages in instruments like piano, flute, or violin. Once the 8va section ends, it’s usually closed with a “loco” sign or the dashed line stops.

Ottava bassa

Ottava bassa, abbreviated as 8vb or sometimes 8va bassa, is a notation indicating that the notes should be played one octave lower than written. It appears below the staff, usually with a dashed line extending over the notes it affects.

This marking simplifies reading of very low passages, particularly for instruments like piano, bassoon, cello, or double bass, by avoiding the need for many ledger lines. The end of the 8vb section is typically marked by the end of the dashed line or a “loco” indication.

Quindicesima alta

Quindicesima alta, abbreviated as 15ma, indicates that the notes should be played two octaves higher than written. It is placed above the staff, often with a dashed line spanning the affected notes, similar to 8va but covering a broader pitch range.

This marking is used to simplify notation for extremely high passages, especially in instruments like piano, flute, or piccolo, avoiding dense ledger lines and improving readability. When the passage ends, it's typically followed by "loco" or a return to normal placement.

Quindicesima bassa

Quindicesima bassa, abbreviated as 15mb or sometimes 15va bassa, means the notes should be played two octaves lower than written. It appears below the staff, usually with a dashed line indicating the range it affects.

This marking simplifies the notation of very low passages—common in instruments like piano, bass, or organ—by avoiding excessive ledger lines. The end of the range is marked either by the end of the dashed line or with "loco" to return to normal pitch.

Repeat signs

Repeat signs are notational symbols that instruct musicians to play a section of music again. The standard repeat sign consists of two dots placed before or after a double bar line:

• Start repeat: dots on the right side of the bar line
• End repeat: dots on the left side of the bar line

When both appear, the music between them is repeated. If only an end repeat is shown, the repeat goes back to the beginning or the most recent start repeat.

They help reduce clutter in sheet music and are commonly used in classical, jazz, and pop forms.

>>More details about repeat sign

Simile marks

Simile marks are symbols used to indicate that a pattern—usually rhythmic or articulative—should be repeated in the following measure(s) without rewriting the full notation.

A single diagonal slash (⁄) means repeat the previous measure.

Double slashes with dots (//: or ://) may indicate multi-measure repeats in some styles.

For articulations or dynamics, the word "simile" or a similar symbol may appear to show the performer should continue in the same style.

Simile marks make sheet music clearer and more concise, especially in percussion, jazz, and orchestral parts.

Volta brackets

Volta brackets, also called 1st and 2nd endings or 1st- and 2nd-time bars, are notational devices used with repeat signs to indicate different endings for repeated sections.

The 1st ending is labeled “1.” and played the first time through.

At the end of that section, the performer hits a repeat sign, goes back, and on the second pass, skips the 1st ending and jumps to the 2nd ending, marked “2.”

Volta brackets are typically written as horizontal lines with numbers above the staff and help structure music clearly without excessive notation.

Da capo

Da capo (abbreviated D.C.) is an Italian musical term meaning “from the head”, or from the beginning. It directs the performer to go back to the start of the piece and play again, usually until reaching a point marked “Fine” (the end) or another instruction like D.S. al Fine.

Common forms include:

• D.C. al Fine – go back to the beginning, end at “Fine”
• D.C. al Coda – return to the beginning, then jump to the coda when prompted

Da capo saves space and creates clear structure, especially in arias, classical forms, and vocal music.

Dal segno

Dal segno (abbreviated D.S.) is an Italian musical instruction meaning “from the sign”. It tells the performer to go back to a specific symbol, called the segno (𝄋), and continue playing from there.

Common forms include:

• D.S. al Fine – return to the segno and play until reaching “Fine”
• D.S. al Coda – return to the segno, then jump to the coda at the appropriate cue

Dal segno helps organize music with repeated sections without rewriting large portions, especially in songs, theater music, and instrumental forms.

Segno

The segno is a musical symbol (𝄋) used as a navigation marker in sheet music. It means “sign” in Italian and is placed at the point where performers should return when following instructions like Dal Segno (D.S.).

For example, in D.S. al Fine, the musician jumps back to the segno symbol and continues playing until the “Fine” marking. The segno helps manage repeats and structure in music without crowding the page.

Coda sign

The coda sign (𝄌) is a navigation symbol in music that marks the beginning of a coda section, which is a concluding passage. It’s used in conjunction with directions like “To Coda” or “D.S. al Coda”, instructing performers to jump to the coda sign and finish the piece there.

The symbol helps clarify structure, especially in pieces with repeated or modular forms, such as in classical, pop, and jazz music.

>>More details about coda symbol

Direct symbol

The direct symbol is a notational cue that guides the performer to the next section after reaching the end of a repeat or jump. It's typically a text instruction, such as “To Coda”, “Fine”, or “D.C. al Fine”, rather than a specific graphic symbol like the segno or coda.

Its purpose is to clarify the flow of the music, ensuring performers follow the intended structure—whether that’s returning to the beginning, jumping to a coda, or ending at a designated point.

Left-hand pizzicato

Left-hand pizzicato (often abbreviated L.H. pizz.) or stopped note is a technique used primarily by string players, especially violinists and violists, where the string is plucked with a finger of the left hand while the right hand continues bowing or rests.

This technique creates a sharp, percussive sound and is usually notated with a small cross (×) or a plus sign (+) above or near the notehead. The plus sign can also indicate a stopped note on French horn, where the player closes the hand in the bell to create a muted, nasal tone.

Snap pizzicato

Snap pizzicato, also known as Bartók pizzicato, is a string technique where the performer pulls the string away from the fingerboard and lets it snap back forcefully. This creates a sharp, percussive “slap” sound as the string hits the fingerboard.

It is commonly used in modern or 20th-century music, especially in works by Béla Bartók, from whom it gets its name. The technique is typically notated with a circle with a vertical line above the note or sometimes marked explicitly as “Bartók pizz.”

Natural harmonic

A natural harmonic, also called an open harmonic, is produced by lightly touching a string at specific points (called nodes) without pressing it down, creating a clear, bell-like tone. It's commonly used in string instruments like violin, cello, and guitar.

The notation typically involves a small circle (°) above the notehead or diamond-shaped noteheads. Natural harmonics occur at fractional divisions of the string length (½, ⅓, ¼, etc.) and sound higher than the written pitch, depending on where the harmonic is played.

Up bow or Sull’arco

An up bow (Italian: sull’arco when referring generally to "on the bow") is a bowing direction used for string instruments, instructing the player to move the bow from the tip toward the frog (the end held by the hand). It is notated with a “V” symbol above or below the note.

Up bows are typically used on weaker beats or for lighter articulations, offering flexibility in phrasing and dynamics. It's the counterpart to the down bow (𝆪), and thoughtful use of both helps shape musical expression.

Down bow or Giù arco

A down bow (Italian: Giù arco) is a bowing instruction for string instruments that tells the player to move the bow from the frog (near the hand) toward the tip. It is symbolized by a square-shaped icon (𝆪) placed above or below the note.

Down bows are generally used for strong beats or accented phrases, allowing for greater weight and control in sound. This technique is essential in shaping dynamics and phrasing, especially in orchestral and solo string playing.

Con sordino (“with mute”)

Con sordino, meaning "with mute" in Italian, is a performance instruction telling musicians—especially string, brass, or piano players—to use a mute to alter the instrument’s sound. A mute typically makes the tone softer, darker, or more muffled, depending on the instrument and mute type.

For strings, it's a small device clipped onto the bridge. For brass, it’s inserted into the bell. In piano music, "con sordino" sometimes refers to using the soft pedal. The opposite instruction is senza sordino (“without mute”).

Senza sordino (“without mute”)

Senza sordino is an Italian musical term meaning “without mute.” It instructs the performer to remove the mute and return to the instrument’s natural, unmuted sound.

This direction often follows a “con sordino” passage and is commonly used in string and brass music. For piano, it may indicate releasing the soft pedal. The contrast between muted and unmuted sound adds expressive depth to the music.

Engage pedal

Engage pedal, also known as pedal down or pedal mark, is an instruction in piano music telling the player to press the sustain (damper) pedal, which lifts the dampers off the strings so that notes continue to resonate after being played.

It is often notated with the abbreviation “Ped.” or a horizontal line beneath the music. The line may include vertical lifts (∕) to show when to release and re-engage the pedal for clarity and cleanliness in sound.

Release pedal

Release pedal, often called pedal up, instructs pianists to lift the sustain (damper) pedal, stopping the sustained sound and allowing the dampers to mute the strings. This ends the resonance and creates a cleaner transition between harmonies or phrases.

In notation, it's usually marked by an asterisk (✱) or a lift symbol (∕) on a pedal line. It's essential for avoiding overly blurred or muddy textures in piano music.

Variable pedal mark

The variable pedal mark is a notational system used in piano music to show subtle and continuous use of the sustain pedal, rather than full presses and releases. It allows the performer to partially press or gradually release the pedal, shaping resonance and clarity more precisely.

This is typically shown with a horizontal line below the staff that rises and falls, indicating how far the pedal should be depressed. It’s common in Romantic and modern piano repertoire, where nuanced pedaling is key to expressive phrasing.

Una corda

Una corda (abbreviated U.C. or 1 C.) is an instruction for pianists to use the soft pedal, which shifts the action of the piano so that the hammers strike fewer strings—usually just one instead of three. This results in a softer, more delicate tone.

The term means “one string” in Italian, referring to how early pianos operated. On modern grand pianos, the soft pedal shifts the hammers slightly, changing the timbre even if not all strings are bypassed.

Tre corde

Tre corde (also written as tutte le corde, T.C., or 3 C.) is a piano instruction meaning “three strings” or “all the strings.” It tells the performer to release the soft pedal (una corda) and return to the piano’s full, natural sound.

This marking typically follows a passage played with una corda, restoring the instrument’s usual resonance and brightness by allowing the hammers to strike all strings in each note group again.

Left hand

Left hand in music is typically indicated with the abbreviation L.H. and instructs the performer—usually a pianist, harpist, or percussionist—to play the marked notes using the left hand.

This marking helps clarify hand assignments in complex passages, especially when hands cross or overlap. It ensures better technique and phrasing by guiding the performer’s physical approach to the instrument.

Right hand

Right hand, abbreviated as R.H., is a musical instruction that tells the performer—especially pianists or harpists—to play the indicated notes using the right hand.

It’s used to clarify hand placement in passages where parts may overlap or cross, ensuring proper technique, phrasing, and comfort in execution.